Cynthia Eid SNAG News Technical Article by Cynthia Eid: Argentium Sterling Silver |
The Society of North American Goldsmiths
TECH NEWS
A r g e n t i u m ® Sterling Silver  By Cynthia Eid ©2005 Cynthia Eid. Copies may be made for personal and instructional use, but not for profit . What is Argentium® Sterling Silver? A r g e n t i u m® Sterling Silver is a patented and trademarked alloy that is at least 92.5% pure silver, just like regular sterling silver. What makes it different from regular sterling silver is that a small amount of germanium replaces some of the copper that is usually the other 7.5% of a sterling silver alloy. Peter Johns, a professor of silversmithing at Middlesex University in England, invented it in 1996. When I heard about firescale-free sterling silver sheet, I sought out sources, and hoarded whatever I could get my hands on, as I fell in love with the material’s working properties. What does Argentium® Sterling Silver look like? To me, it looks like any other sterling silver. Though some have said to me that it looks whiter than regular sterling, others say it looks grayer than regular sterling silver. I notice that the color seems to vary, depending on what the finish is on the metal, and what polishing compound may have been used. In my own studio, I have a difficult time keeping track of which is which, unless I have carefully labeled the metals. What makes Argentium® Sterling Silver special? 
F i r e s c a l e - f r e e . When heated, regular sterling silver forms cuprous oxide (Cu2O, known as firescale or firestain), that annoying purplish layer that lurks under the surface of regular sterling silver after annealing or soldering. Firescale needs to be removed via abrasives or chemicals, covered with electrop l a t i n g , or covered by depleting the copper from the surface |
through repeated heating and pickling (often called “bringing up the fine silver”). Though Argentium® Sterling may oxidize
when heated, the oxide is cupric oxide (CuO). This is a surface oxide that pickle removes completely; there is no underlying
cuprous oxide (C u2O) fir e s c a l e. One of the unusual properties of the element silver (Ag) is that silver allows oxygen to penetrate through its surface, and into the interior of the metal. That is why the Cu2O / firescale is able to form under the surface of regular sterling silver. The addition of germanium to the sterling silver alloy stops the penetration of oxygen past the surface. Available in sheet, tubing, and wire, as well as casting grain. Most other “deox” alloys (a common term for fir e s c a l e - f r e e sterling alloys) include zinc, replacing some of the copper. The zinc/silver alloys have been working well as casting alloys for a number of years, but have not been easily available as workable sheet and wire. Highly tarnish-resistant. When I initially heard this claim, I was skeptical. I have noticed, howe v e r, that when I receive work back from an exhibition or gallery, the metalwork made with A r g e n t i u m® Sterling Silver looks fine, though the work made with regular sterling silver is often tarnished, despite my habit of applying a coat of Renaissance Wax to work made with regular sterling when it is going to an exhibition. Recently, I borrowed a bowl I made of Argentium® Sterling for the Silver Triennial exhibition in Europe. The owner apologized that she had not had time to polish it before returning it, and that it had been sitting out on her dining room buffet for a year. I was therefore surprised to open the box and see that it looked nearly pristine. C ATRA (Cutlery and Allied Trades Research Association) is an independent testing laboratory in the United Kingdom. They performed tests comparing the tarnish resistance of standard sterling silver and Argentium® Sterling Silver. Here is a quote from their report: “Photographic records were used to visually document the tarnishing behaviour of the two alloys when exposed to the accelerated tarnish test procedures over set periods of time. In both the BS EN ISO 4538: 1995 Thioacetamide test and the Ammonium Polysulphide test, Standard Sterling developed severe dark discolouration. In comparison, Argentium® Sterling remained clean and bright.” You can see the full report, with photos of the samples, at < h t t p : / / w w w. l a n d e l l flu t e s . c o m / - P r o d u c t s / A s s e t s / a r g r e p o r t . p d f . > Greater ductility and malleability than regular sterling silver. (Ductility is the ability of a metal to be stretched or elongated. Malleability is the ability of the metal to be transformed—e.g, bent, formed, forged, etc.—without breaking. A metal can have one property without the other; lead, for instance, is malleable but not ductile.1) I realized this the first time I formed A r g e n t i u m® in a hydraulic press with a matrix die. When I used the amount of force I expected to need for regular sterling s i l v e r, the entire flange was pulled into the negative space of the die! Since it was a large piece of Argentium® S t e r l i n g , which was hard to obtain at the time, I had to re-work the form for the teapot by hammering. I enjoy this greater ductility and malleability when I do fold forming, forging, die f o r mi n g , anticlastic and synclastic forming, raising, and knitted c h a i n s . |
page 5
The Society of North American Goldsmiths page 6
|
I have not tried chasing with it yet, but I expect that it will be a delight to chasers. To me, Argentium® Sterling is softer after
annealing than regular sterling, and can be worked longer and further before it needs annealing than regular sterling. Can be precipitation hardened using a kitchen oven. Conseq u e n t l y, an Argentium® Sterling Silver piece is sturdier and more dent-resistant. Tests made by Stern-Leach indicate that A r g e n t i u m® Sterling Silver is capable of achieving hardness levels approximately twice those of fully annealed regular sterling silver. N a t u r a l l y, results vary according to the situation, yet these hardnesses have been attained repeatedly both by Stern-Leach (their thermocouples and hardness testing instruments are calibrated regularly, to assure accuracy) and Peter Johns at Middlesex University in the UK. In my studio, my hardness-testing tools are my fingers, ears, and hammer. These have been “calibrated” by my 35+ years of metalsmithing, and their “readings” are that the Argentium® Sterling silver becomes m u c h h a r d e r. I appreciated this feature when I made the SNAG Lifetime Achievement Awards (SNAG gives one at each annual conference). The textured part of the bowl is made of thin Argentium (about 26 gauge) in order to achieve the depth of the texture. The structure of the corrugation and cross-corrugation makes it very strong. However, I value being able to further harden the metal in my oven so that I can r e a l l y feel confident about the award surviving being shipped across the country to the SNAG director, then schlepped to a SNAG conference, handed to a worthy recipient, and fin a l l y taken to a home. Tiffany is utilizing Argentium® S t e r l i n g ’s hardness to make money clips. Laser and plasma-weldable due to its lower heat and electrical c o n d u c t i v i t y. One of the properties of metalloids, such as germanium, is that they are less conductive than metals. I don’t have access to welding machines, but I have seen incredible work done by folks who do have welders. The high thermal and electrical conductivity of traditional sterling silver alloys has made them difficult to weld. I have used this property to fuse links for a chain made of A r g e n t i u m® Sterling Silver. I was pleasantly surprised to find it easy to do. I used liquid flux on the joint and the small, hot flame of my Smith Little Torch on a heat-reflective soldering pad. Since Argentium® Sterling Silver does not conduct heat very well, I focused the heat on the joint, rather than the whole link. Larry Blackwell2 is a jeweler who specializes in sterling silver chains. He uses Argentium® Sterling Silver wire for his chains, and fuses whenever possible, since he finds it faster than soldering. He does not usually use flux to fuse, and varies the size of the flame, depending on the gauge of the metal. What is germanium? If you are like me, you don’t remember Germanium from studying the periodic table in chemistry. Germanium (Ge) is an element, named after being discovered in Germany in 1886. It is number 32, its atomic weight is 72.64, and it is next to silicon. It is chemically similar to tin. Germanium is not found as a free element in nature. Germanium is found in zinc ores, coal, germanite, and argyrodite. In researching this article, I have been intrigued to see that germanium is not listed in charts comparing metals and their characteristics in any of the jewelry or silversmithing books in my studio. Germanium is a metalloid, as are silicon, manganese, boron, and sulfur. These elements are on the border between the metallic elements of the periodic table, and the non-metallic elements. |
Metalloids have both metallic and non-metallic properties. Metalloids tend to be semiconductors rather than conductors.
Germanium is a semiconductor, with electrical properties between those of a metal and an insulator. (D e finition of conduction: t h e
result of collisions between molecules; when one end of an object is heated, the molecules vibrate faster and the energy is transferred
to their neighbors.3) (I think I’ve learned more about chemistry and metallurgy this year, trying to understand how and why germanium affects sterling silver the way it does, than I did in my
whole year of high school Chemistry class!) Pure germanium is crystalline, gray, and lustrous. It is very brittle; it shatters easily with a hammer. Interestingly, it seems to have a bleaching characteristic when alloyed—the alloys made with it look whiter, and less yellow. What else is Germanium used for?
Why does Argentium® Sterling precipitation harden so well? Until now, I had always thought precipitation to simply be the phenomenon we see when a solid settles out to the bottom of a container of a liquid solution, as happens when we make Prip’s Flux, or put sugar in water. Here is a definition of precipitation, used in Chemistry, which helps me understand how germanium can precipitate in a solid: To cause (a solid substance) to be separated from a solution.(4) Because Germanium is a metalloid, rather than a true metal, germanium atoms tend to “float” around within the silver/copper |
page 6
The Society of North American Goldsmiths page 7
alloy relatively unimpeded. When Argentium® Sterling Silver is heated, the germanium precipitates out of the alloy, and forms its own crystal structure. Because the germanium crystal structure has a different geometry than the silver/copper crystal structure, the two structures interlock, thus making the metal harder. Why does germanium stop firescale and tarnish? Germanium, being a “mobile” metalloid, readily migrates to the surface. In this context, the word mobility describes the movement of the electrons within a solid. Germanium constantly diffuses to the surface, where it combines with oxygen, and forms a thin layer of germanium oxide, GeO2. This thin, nearly transparent layer of germanium oxide is impervious to oxygen, and thus prevents cuprous oxide (C u2O/ fir e s c a l e / firestain) from forming in the interior layers of metal. (Firescale forms when oxygen penetrates the sterling, and combines with copper. ) Germanium oxide is preferential—the germanium oxide forms so readily and easily that it forms BEFORE the copper and silver are able to oxidize. Germanium is highly reactive. (Chemistry & Physics definition of reactive: Tending to participate readily in reactions.) This makes sense when we remember that germanium is not found as a separate element in nature. Even the surface of pure germanium has a very thin layer of germanium dioxide, GeO2. The only time Argentium® Sterling Silver discolors when heated is if oxygen is missing so that the germanium cannot oxidize. (For instance, I’ll notice a discoloration on the side of a sheet of A r g e n t i u m® laid against a soldering pad when heated.) This discoloration is only on the surface, and fully removable with pickle. Germanium stops the oxygen from penetrating---with no oxygen inside, there is no firescale inside the metal. (Silver is one of the few metals to allow oxygen to penetrate.) Germanium on the surface of the metal combines with oxygen to form a protective barrier layer of GeO2, germanium dioxide. Some people like to say that Argentium® Sterling Silver is “selfhealing” in its tarnish-resistance, because this germanium oxide layer will naturally grow over time. Heating speeds this process, so, if finishing a piece has abraded the surface, heating the Argent i u m® Sterling Silver will re-build the tarnish-resistant layer of germanium oxide more quickly. The other day, as I was trying to reticulate some A r g e n t i u m® Sterling that was discolored from being in a kiln with the door closed for 45 minutes at 1050ºF, I was intrigued to see that the longer I heated it with the torch, the WHITER the silver became(!). Some Background: The Correct Meanings of the Words Oxide and Oxidize, which are commonly used by jewelers and metal- smiths to mean patina, tarnish, antiquing, or coloration from heat.
|
Some large jewelry manufacturers, including Ti f f a n y, Jacmel, and New England Sterling, as well as Magic Novelty (headpins, earwires, jump rings, and eye pins) and Hallmark Sweet (beads) are selling products made in Argentium® Sterling Silver. The World Poker Tour Invitational tournament trophy was made from A r g e n t i u m® Sterling Silver.5 Is there a downside to using Argentium® Sterling Silver?
WORKING WITH ARGENTIUM® STERLING SILV ER Tips and Procedures: A N N E A L I N G A r g e n t i u m® Sterling has a melting point around 60 degrees lower than regular sterling silver. Similarly, it has a lower annealing temperature range, of 1050ºF to 1150ºF. A r g e n t i u m® Sterling Silver displays a paler color when heated. In practice, I find the color hard to see, and it is easy to overheat if I anneal in a lighted room. Annealing and soldering in the dark make it easier to avoid overheating. When that is not practical, I use dabs of paste flux as a temperature indicator; when the flux is flu i d , but still a bit bubbly (not yet as runny as it looks when silver solder is ready to flow) I figure the Argentium® Sterling is annealed. R e c e n t l y, Peter Johns told me that it is a good practice to use a clean, new soldering board for Argentium, and to keep it separate from the surfaces that are used for other metals, especially copper alloys. This avoids the possibility of the Argentium® S t e r l i n g having its surface contaminated by oxides in the bricks, which could create stains on the metal or other problems. Prior to this, I had not been using fresh soldering surfaces, and had not noticed any problems. It is sensible though, so I have now begun using a separate, labeled soldering board for Argentium® S t e r l i n g . Q U E N C H I N G Argentium® Sterling Silver retains heat longer than standard sterling silver. It’s important to wait for any visible red heat to disappear from the alloy before quenching (this is best judged in |
page 7
The Society of North American Goldsmiths page 8
|
a darkened area, of course). In practice, if unable to work in the dark, then wait a few moments for a small piece, or up to a few
minutes for a large piece. If in doubt, I suggest that it is better to wait longer than to be impatient. The worst that will happen by
waiting is that the metal will be a bit harder. I find that it is still wonderfully ductile and malleable, even if I air-cool it without
quenching. If I were doing soldered constructions that I did not want to warp, I would air cool, not quench. In fact, I rarely quench
any metal—it is my general practice is to avoid shocking any metal that I am working with—unless it is one of the gold alloys
that require quenching, or a steel tool that I am making. On the other hand, note that the sooner the Argentium® Sterling is
quenched, the softer it is—therefore, you may choose between softness and risk of shock-cracks or warping according to the
situation and your personal sense of concern about those factors. M E LT I N G T E M P E R A T U R E S Regular sterling silver has a solidus melting temperature of 1475ºF and liquidus flow point of 1650ºF. (Solidus is the temperature at which a metal starts to melt; liquidus is the temperature at which a metal is fully melted.) The solidus melting point of Argentium® Sterling Silver is 1410ºF; the liquidus flow temperature is 1610ºF. C A S T I N G (Since I don’t do my own casting, the following is information gleaned from experts such as Peter Johns.) Argentium® C a s t i n g Grain is 93% silver, with the same solidus and liquidus as Argent i u m® Sterling sheet and wire. Pyrometric temperature control is preferable, because it is important not to overheat when melting A r g e n t i u m® Casting Grain for casting. If a torch must be used, one needs to learn to recognize the paler color that indicates A r g e n t i u m® Sterling is melting. To avoid contamination from other metals, use a separate crucible. Do not use silicon carbide. When investment casting, a pour temperature of 1740–1780ºF (950–980ºC) and a flask temperature below 1250ºF (677ºC) is recommended. A protective atmosphere is preferable, but the use of boric acid flux or graphite powder is effective. After casting the metal, a minimum of 15 minutes air-cooling is needed before quenching. Note that castings will be much harder if they are completely air cooled, rather than quenched. As with most metals, re-melting scrap may result in brittle castings. S C R A P If you generally send your scrap to a refiner, it is not necessary, at this time, to keep Argentium® Sterling scrap separate from regular sterling scrap. (It won’t be detrimental to regular sterling. If Argentium® Sterling is mixed with regular sterling, the sterling’s properties won’t alter until the percentages of the alloys become similar to those of Argentium® Sterling) H A L L M A R K I N G Jewelers and silversmiths who wish to use the Argentium® S i l v e r “as” mark may go to S O L D E R I N G Because of the lower melting temperature, hard solder is not recommended for use with Argentium® Sterling Silver. Medium, easy or extra-easy regular silver solders are safest. In practice, I find that I can |
use hard silver solder if I really want to for a short seam
in a complex construction, though when I do so, I often notice that the metal shows signs of looking like it came close to melting. Germanium-containing solders have been developed. I have tried them out, and I like the color match, as well as the fact that they flow well, with good capillary action. Their melting temperatures are approximately equivalent to medium, easy, and extra easy. The new solders are expected to be available in June. Available as wire and sheet, they will be called Argentium®Hard, Argentium® Medium, and Argentium® Easy. Argentium® Easy melts at 1146ºF (619ºC), and flows at 1253ºF (678ºC). Argentium® Medium melts at 1237ºF (670ºC), and flows at 1319ºF (715ºC). Argentium® Hard melts at 1272ºF (689ºC), and flows at 1355ºF (735ºC). C u r r e n t l y, Argentium® Sterling Silver is supplied annealed, which is wonderful for me since I rarely use a piece of metal without forming it a bit first. Straight planes of metal are uncommon in my visual vocabulary. It is great to be able to start forming without needing to anneal first. I love it that I can move the metal farther before it needs annealing. For me, the only problem I’ve had with soldering is remembering that Argentium® Sterling does not conduct heat as well as regular sterling does. This means that I approach soldering Argentium® Sterling similarly to the way I solder gold (or the way a beginner wants to solder). After giving the entire piece a bit of a general heating, I concentrate the heat on the solder joint (the area that is being soldered —not the solder itself). Metalsmiths who like to make soldered constructions of fla t sheet may find that they need to prepare the metal a bit beforehand to prevent the metal from sagging during soldering. Lay the Argentium® Sterling on a flat soldering surface, bring it to annealing temperature (dull red) with a torch flame, keep it at that temperature for about 15 seconds, and then allow it to air cool. There is disagreement amongst the experts on just why this sagging occurs, and why annealing then air-cooling helps prevent sag. It has something to do with crystaline structure, the size of the grain, and the rate of cooling. More studies are being conducted; I bet that eventually the manufacturing process will be adjusted, and that this is a temporary problem. In the meantime, note that the lower the temperature of the solder, the less that sagging is a problem, and that sagging is only a problem with unsupported flat metal. T. Flory recently ran a set of experiments that expanded on the tests that I have done. T h e y can be seen on his blog at R E T I C U L AT I O N ? Noticing the texture it gets when close to melting, I tried to reticulate Argentium® Sterling Silver. Since reticulation works on the principle of the interior melting at a lower temperature than the exterior skin, I put a few pieces of 24 gauge and 18 gauge Argentium® Sterling sheet into a kiln for 45 minutes at |
page 8
The Society of North American Goldsmiths page 9
|
1050ºF to build up a skin of oxides (which have a higher melting
temperature than Argentium® Sterling). I managed to get a few areas of lovely ripples, but nothing consistent. E N A M E L I N G ? There have been experiments with enameling on Argentium® Sterling Silver, but I don’t know of anyone who has had consistent success. It seems that it could be worth investigation, since Argentium® Sterling is sturdier than fine silver, and the temperature required for hardening should not damage enamel. H E AT HARDENING Heat at 580°F (299°C) for 45 minutes to 2 hours, and then air- cool . The alloy will not lose its hardness if left in the oven longer. (Since my oven goes only to 550°F, I usually heat it for an hour at 550°F.) Unlike many other alloys, it does not need to be quenched in order to be hardened. Should the need arise, the alloy can be softened by conventional annealing and then hardened again. ANTIQUING I have been using a commercial acidic solution, which is hydrochloric (or muriatic) acid, to “antique” my work made in A r g e n t i u m® Sterling Silver. It works quickly and well. I like the way the acid types of “antiquing” patinas are always ready to use —no mixing, or heating up required. (Of course, it is important to use it very carefully according to the instructions and precautions. Have adequate ventilation, use gloves, eye protection, etc.!) I like to use liver of sulfur for copper and brass alloys, because of t h e beautiful range of colors, and the depth of the colors. However, for “antiquing” silver, when I just want the recesses to have a black patina, I don't use liver of sulfur, because of its short shelf life. Some people report that liver of sulfur takes longer to work on A r g e n t i u m® Sterling than for regular sterling. P O L I S H I N G Just as it is important to keep buffs used for steel tools separate from buffs used for precious metals, it is good practice to use separate polishing wheels for Argentium® Sterling Silver to avoid contamination from other alloys (residues left on the buff from another metal could be transferred onto the surface of the silver). If this is not possible, thoroughly rake the buffing wheels clean before using them for Argentium® Sterling. Of course, like the soldering boards, these separate buffs should be labeled, and stored separately from buffs used for other metals. Ultrasonic solutions should be neutral in pH (pH6-pH8) for any sterling silver, whether regular or Argentium®, since high alkaline liquids attack all sterlings. The metal can look etched or discolored, especially if the ultrasonic is run very hot (over 120ºF ) . (I have also been told that ultrasonics, run with too much force, can attack any surface.) Peter Johns learned the hard way that solutions labeled as neutral are not necessarily so. Use your own ph test strips to check the ph. (Disposable paper strips areavailable at pharmacies and aquarium/pet stores, as well as on the web.) Since the final polishing of a piece made of Argentium® Sterling removes much of the tarnish-resistant germanium oxide layer, one may wish to heat the Argentium® Sterling to speed up the rebuilding of a protective germanium oxide layer. 250°F for 10 minutes is generally adequate. The immediate difference after this |
heating is invisible to me, but I am sure the difference shows over time. (If there is a little smudge, or piece of crud that got burned
on during this 10 minutes, I use a Goddard’s Long Shine Cloth.) Like glass or any other metal, Argentium® Sterling can show fingerprints. However, I have noticed that the pieces on which I have wiped off fingerprints with a Goddard’s Long Shine Silver Cloth have stayed cleanest and are more fin g e r p r i n t - r e s i s t a n t . It seems that the chemicals in the cloth affect Argentium® Sterling, enhancing the non-tarnishing properties--though I do not notice a film, nor any visible difference other than the polishing action. S A F E T Y OK, if you are like me, you may be wondering, “what’s the catch?” I know that I was quite concerned about the safety of germanium, and unwilling to just take the word of the guy in New Mexico that I was buying the silver from at the time. I looked up the MSDS on the web, and was appalled at the dangers listed for germanium. But then, I decided to look up copper and silver to compare. The even-longer lists of dangers for copper and silver gave me a different perspective about the list for germanium. My recent research for this article led me to this statement on the web: “Germanium compounds appear not to be particularly toxic. Fumes from compounds such as germanium tetrachloride ( GeCl4) irritate eyes and lungs.” (Chlorine is used for refin i n g germanium.) So, this led me to new worries: what should a silversmith do to avoid creation of this compound? Would this mean that one should avoid wearing Argentium® in swimming pools treated with chlorine? Or be careful using chlorine bleach or cleaning compounds? Since salt is NaCl, would that mean that it would be dangerous in a saltshaker????! I consulted with Sam Davis, a chemical and mechanical engineer at Stern-Leach, who put my fears to rest. He says, “The surface of Argentium® Sterling Silver has germanium which is oxidized to germanium oxide. The reason this occurs is because germanium is an “oxygen getter. ” It has a high affinity for oxygen even at room temperature. Germanium oxide is a very stable compound and will not react with any form of chlorine (whether it be bleach, or chlorine gas, or aqueous chlorine, or table salt) at normal temperatures that a human would be exposed to.” Germanium oxide reacts with chlorine around 1472ºF/800ºC. Since this temperature is above the melting point of Argentium® Sterling, it means that unless you are refining germanium, or melting an Argentium® Sterling saltshaker full of salt, there is little risk for this toxic gas. Whew! I sure feel better now! I also found this interesting note: “Certain germanium compounds have a low mammalian toxicity, but a clear activity against certain bacteria, which makes them of interest as chemotherapeutic agents.”(6) N a t u r a l l y, one should always use safe work habits when working with any metal. Wear a dust mask and safety glasses for grinding or polishing. Use good ventilation for soldering, grinding, and polishing. Don’t eat or drink in the studio. Use common sense, and take precautions to take care of your health and safety. It is interesting to note that using Argentium® Sterling Silver could make many workplaces safer, since they will no longer need to use cyanide and/or nitric acids to deal with firescale if Argentium® Sterling Silver is used rather than regular sterling silver. |
page 9
The Society of North American Goldsmiths page 10
|
THE FUTURE?
Argentium Silver Co. is a spinout from Middlesex University. It is based in London, UK. Argentium Silver Co. has partnered with Stern-Leach (a U.S. division of Cookson, which is based in U.K.) to make the alloy available. Argentium® Sterling Silver sheet, wire, s o l d e r, tubing, and casting grain are currently being made by Stern-Leach. Stern-Leach’s minimum order size is 100 ounces for sterling silver, 100 dwt. for gold. Smaller quantities may be purchased through Stuller, Rio Grande, Hoover and Strong, and G&S Metals. Technical assistance is available via E-mail at |
I would love to hear about any innovations or discoveries made about Argentium® Sterling Silver and/or its use! (I suspect that
I’ll be writing an update in a year or so.) I can be contacted at < ceid@cynthiaeid.com >. Legal Notice of Disclaimer: Working with metal and tools is potentially hazardous; users must take responsibility. It is each p e r s o n ’s responsibility to use common sense, and appropriate safety precautions. The user is also responsible for his own personal safety and the safety of any others on or about his premises. Professional training is recommended. The author, SNAG, its staff, directors, officers, and S N A G News s p e c i fically disclaim any responsibility or liability for any damages or injury resulting from any activity undertaken through use of any information presented in this article. The use of any printed information is solely at the user’s risk. Any and all information is provided without warranty implied or otherwise nor is it warranted for suitability or fitness for any purpose other than to educate and enlighten the user. Bibliography (sources used for the writing of this article) w w w. a r g e n t i u m s i l v e r. c o m w w w. c a t r a . o r g w w w. s i l v e r s m i t h i n g . c o m h t t p : / / w w w. a j m - m a g a z i n e . c o m / f e a t u r e s / 1 2 0 4 / i n d e x . p h p ? p a g e br> = a r g e n t i u m h t t p : / / m i c r o - j o i n i n g . c o m / s f s a b s t r a c t s . h t m l w w w. l a n d e l l flu t e s . c o m w w w. t o u c h m e t a l . c o m / b l o g / a r g e n t i u m - b l o g . h t m l h t t p : / / o n e t . t e h o n e t t i . fi/ k u l t a k e s k u s _ e n g / o n e t / i n d e x / C AT R A Report Number 956994 h t t p:/ / www.silverusersassociation.org The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2 0 0 0 . h t t p : / / w w w. w e b e l e m e n t s . c o m / w e b e l e m e n t s / e l e m e n t s / t e x t / G e h t t p : / / a c a d e m i c k i d s . c o m / e n c y c l o p e d i a / g / g e / g e r m a n i u m . h t m l h t t p : / / a c a d e m i c k i d s . c o m / e n c y c l o p e d i a / m / m o / m o b i l i t y. h t m l h t t p : / / m i s t e r g u c h . b r i n k s t e r. n e t / b i g d i c t i o n a r y. h t m l h t t p : / / w w w. e n g i n e e r s e d g e . c o m / m a t e r i a l _ s c i e n c e / m a l l e a b i l i t y. h t m h t t p : / / w w w. b a r t l e b y.com/65/ma/malleabi.html h t t p : / / e n . w i k i p e d i a . o r g / w i k i / G e r m a n i u m h t t p : / / e n . w i k i p e d i a . o r g / w i k i / B a n d _ g a p h t t p : / / w w w. c h e m b o o k . c o . u k / c h a p 5 . h t m h t t p : / / w w w. k n o v e l . c o m Conversations with: Peter Johns, inventor of Argentium® Sterling Silver Richard Carrano, metallurgist at Stern-Leach Sam Davis, chemical and mechanical engineer at Stern-Leach Sean Gilson, Technical Editor of SNAG News _____________________________ 1 My thanks to Jamie Pelissier at 2 < www. t w i s t e d e l e g a n c e j e w e l r y. c o m > 3 < http://misterguch.brinkster.net/bigdictionary.html > 4 The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Languge: - Fourth Edition. 2000 5 < http://www.worldpokertour.com/index2.php > 6 < http://www.webelements.com/ webelements/element/text/Ge/key.html> |
page 10
This article is reprinted with permission from
the Society of North American Goldsmiths (SNAG), the publisher of Metalsmith
Visit SNAG’swebsite, www.snagmetalsmith.org
| Cynthia Eid |
|